@article{bibcite_36523,
  keywords = {Energy, Evaporation, Power, Separation Science, Water treatment, Zero Liquid Discharge, Thermoelectric recirculating cooling towers, Closed-circuit reverse osmosis, Brine Concentrator, Levelized Cost of Water},
  author = {Sophia L Plata and Connie L Devenport and Ariel Miara and Kurban A Sitterley and Anna Evans and Michael Talmadge and Kurt M Van Allsburg and Parthiv Kurup and Jordan Cox and Samuel Kerber and Andrew Howell and Richard Breckenridge and Cheyenna Manygoats and Jennifer Stokes-Draut and Jordan Macknick and Amy Childress},
  title = {Zero Liquid Discharge and Water Reuse in Recirculating Cooling Towers at Power Facilities: Review and Case Study Analysis},
  abstract = {<p>Zero liquid discharge (ZLD) systems installed at power facilities with the primary purpose of meeting water discharge regulations have the added benefit of providing high quality effluent that can be reused in the facility. This paper provides a review of water use in power sector recirculating cooling towers and a baseline assessment of on-site water reuse at natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power facilities. Two NGCC facilities with reverse-osmosis (RO) or brine-concentrator processes followed by evaporation ponds were selected as case studies; data from these facilities were used to quantify the water, energy, and cost implications of implementing conventional and emerging ZLD technologies. At one case study facility, model results show that implementation of ZLD would reduce water withdrawals by 18\%, which is less than savings associated with implementation of dry cooling but comparable to current efforts to reduce water withdrawals by increasing cycles of concentration. Implementation of ZLD using high-recovery RO resulted in a doubling of the levelized cost of water (LCOW). LCOW increased more when a brine concentrator was used. For both case studies, the ZLD system using high-recovery RO required less than 0.1\% of a facilitiy{\textquoteright}s annual electricity generation and the ZLD system using a brine concentrator process required less than 0.8\%. Additionally, increasing the evaporation pond area to minimize required ZLD system recovery rates and reduce system electricity costs does not reduce the LCOW. Instead, the LCOW increases because less water is recovered and more water is lost to evaporation. However, if water availability decreases or water competition/cost increases, facilities may be incentivized to maximize water recovery from ZLD systems.</p>},
  year = {2022},
  booktitle = {ACS ES\&T Engineering},
  journal = {ACS ES\&T Engineering},
  series = {ACS ES\&T Engineering},
  volume = {2},
  pages = {508-525},
  month = {31/01/2022},
  institution = {American Chemical Society (ACS)},
  publisher = {American Chemical Society (ACS)},
  issn = {2690-0645, 2690-0645},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.1c00377},
  doi = {10.1021/acsestengg.1c00377},
}